significant number of inventions were developed in the medieval Islamic world, a geopolitical region that has at various times extended from Spain and Africa in the west to the Indian subcontinent and Malay Archipelago in the east
Early forms of distillation were known to the Babylonians, Greeks and Egyptians since ancient times, but it was Muslim chemists who first invented pure distillation processes which could fully purify chemical substances. They also developed several different variations of distillation (such as dry distillation, destructive distillation and steam distillation) and introduced new distillation aparatus (such as the alembic, still, and retort), and invented a variety of new chemical processes and over 9,000 chemical substances
The following chemical processes were invented by Muslim chemists:
Assation (or roasting), cocotion (or digestion), ceration, lavage, solution, mixture, and fixation.
Calcination (al-tashwiya): Invented by Geber
Crystallization (al-tabalwur): Invented by Geber.
Distillation, pure (al-taqtir): Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) was the first to fully purify chemical substances through distillation, using the alembic, in the 8th century.
Destructive distillation: Invented by Muslim chemists in the 8th century to produce tar from petroleum.
Dry distillation
Filtration (al-tarshih): Invented by Geber.
Liquefaction, purification, oxidisation, and evaporation (tabkhir): Invented by Geber.
Solution (al-tahlil), sublimation (al-tas'id), amalgamation (al-talghim), ceration (al-tashmi), and a method of converting a substance into a thick paste or fusible solid.
Steam distillation: Invented by Avicenna in the early 11th century for the purpose of producing essential oils.
Water purification
Chemical substances
Alkali and the salts of mercury: Isolated by Geber.
Alum and the salts and spirits of mercury: Isolated by Geber.
Arsenic, alkali, alkali salt, borax, and pure sal ammoniac: Isolated by Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) in the 8th century.
Cheese glue and plated mail: Invented by Geber.
Classification of seven classical metals: Theory of the seven classical metals (gold, silver, tin, lead, mercury, iron and copper) was formulated by Geber.
Derivative and artificial chemical substances: In the 10th century, Muhammad ibn Zakarīya Rāzi wrote that he and his Muslim predecessors (Calid, Geber and al-Kindi) invented the following derivative and artificial substances: lead(II) oxide (PbO), red lead (Pb3O4), tin(II) oxide (Isfidaj), copper acetate (Zaniar), copper(II) oxide (CuO), lead sulfide, zinc oxide, bismuth oxide, antimony oxide, iron rust, iron acetate, Daws (a contituent of steel), cinnabar (HgS), arsenic trioxide (As2O3), alkali (al-Qili), sodium hydroxide (caustic soda), and Qalimiya (anything that separates from metals during their purification).
Ethanol and pure ammonia: Isolated by Arabic chemists.
Lead carbonatic: Isolated by Geber.
Medicinal substances: Muslim chemists discovered 2,000 medicinal substances.
Potassium nitrate, pure: Isolated by Hasan al-Ramah in the 1270s.
Rose water: First produced by Muslim chemists in the medieval Islamic world through the distillation of roses, for use in the drinking and perfumery industries.
Sal nitrum: Isolated by Geber.
Acids
Aqua regia: Isolated by Geber (Jabir ibn Hayyan) in the 8th century.
Carboxylic acids: Geber isolated Acetic acid from vinegar. He is also credited with the discovery and isolation of Citric acid, the sour component of lemons and other unripe fruits.
Mineral acids: The mineral acids—nitric acid, sulfuric acid, and hydrochloric acid— were first isolated by Geber. He originally referred to sulfuric acid as the oil of vitriol.
Organic acids: Geber isolated Uric acid.He also isolated Tartaric acid from wine-making residues.
Elements
Arsenic: Isolated by Geber in the 8th century.
Antimony: Isolated by Geber.
Bismuth: Isolated by Geber.
Mercury, pure: Isolated by Geber.
Sulfur, pure: Isolated by Geber.
Food and drink
Coffee: Produced by Khalid in Kaffa, Ethiopia, in the 9th century.
Confectionery: Due to advances in sugar production and the invention of sugar refineries, this led to the production of early confectioneries by the Arabs.
Distilled water and water purification: Purified by Muslim chemists.
Doner kebab: The doner kebab originated from the cağ kebab in medieval Turkish cuisine.
Juiced soft drink, Sherbet, and Sharab: The Sherbet and Sharab were the first juiced soft drinks, and originated in the Islamic world.
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