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Japanese American internment
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Internment camps and further institutions of the "War relocation authority" in the western United States.Japanese American internment refers to the forcible relocation and internment of approximately 110,000 Japanese nationals and Japanese Americans to housing facilities called "War Relocation Camps", in the wake of Imperial Japan's attack on Pearl Harbor.[1][2] The internment of Japanese Americans was applied unequally throughout the United States. Japanese Americans residing on the West Coast of the United States were all interned, whereas in Hawaii, where over 150,000 Japanese Americans composed nearly a third of that territory's population, an additional 1,200[3] to 1,800 Japanese Americans were interned.[4] Of those interned, 62 percent were United States citizens.[5][6]
President Franklin Roosevelt authorized the internment with Executive Order 9066 on February 19, 1942, which allowed local military commanders to designate "military areas" as "exclusion zones", from which "any or all persons may be excluded." This power was used to declare that all people of Japanese ancestry were excluded from the entire Pacific coast, including all of California and most of Oregon and Washington, except for those in internment camps.[7] In 1944, the Supreme Court upheld the constitutionality of the exclusion orders,[8] while noting that the provisions that singled out people of Japanese ancestry were a separate issue outside the scope of the proceedings.[9]
In 1988, Congress passed and President Ronald Reagan signed legislation which apologized for the internment on behalf of the U.S. government. The legislation stated that government actions were based on "race prejudice, war hysteria, and a failure of political leadership".[10] About $1.6 billion in reparations were later disbursed by the U.S. government to surviving internees and their heirs.[11]
Contents [hide]
1 Historical context
2 After Pearl Harbor
2.1 Executive Order 9066 and related actions
2.2 Non-military advocates for exclusion, removal, and detention
3 Military necessity as justification for internment
3.1 Japan's wartime spy program
3.2 Magic
3.3 Rebuttals of charges of espionage, disloyalty and anti-American activity
3.4 United States District Court opinions
4 Facilities
4.1 DOJ Internment Camps
4.2 WCCA Assembly Centers
4.3 WRA Relocation Camps
4.4 List of camps
4.4.1 Civilian Assembly Centers
4.4.2 List of internment camps
4.4.3 Justice Department detention camps
4.4.4 Citizen Isolation Centers
4.4.5 Federal Bureau of Prisons
4.4.6 US Army facilities
5 Exclusion, removal, and detention
5.1 Curfew and exclusion
5.2 Conditions in the camps
5.3 Loyalty questions and segregation
5.4 Other detention camps
5.5 Hawaii
5.6 Internment ends
6 Hardship and material loss
7 Reparations and redress
8 Civil rights violations
9 Legal legacy
10 Terminology debate
11 Notable internees
12 Popular culture
13 See also
14 References and notes
15 External links
15.1 Archival sources of documents, photos, and other materials
15.2 Other sources
15.3 United States government documents
15.4 Further reading
[edit] Historical context
See also: Anti-Japanese sentiment
In the first half of the 20th century, California experienced a wave of anti-Japanese prejudice distinct from the Japanese American experience in the broader United States. Over 90% of Japanese immigrants to the USA settled in California, where labor and farm competition fed into general anti-Japanese sentiment.[12] In 1905, California's anti-miscegenation law was amended to prohibit marriages between Caucasians and "Mongolians" (an umbrella term which, at the time, was used in reference to the Japanese, among other ethnicities of East Asian ancestry).[12] That anti-Japanese sentiment was maintained beyond this period is evidenced by the 1924 "Oriental Exclusion Law", which blocked Japanese immigrants from attaining citizenship.[12]
In the years 1939–1941, the FBI compiled the Custodial Detention index ("CDI") on citizens, "enemy" aliens and foreign nationals, based principally on census records, in the interest of national security. On June 28, 1940, the Alien Registration Act was passed. Among many other "loyalty" regulations, Section 31 required the registration and fingerprinting of all aliens above the age of 14, and Section 35 required aliens to report any change of address within 5 days. Nearly five million foreign nationals registered at post offices around the country, in the subsequent months.[13][14]
[edit] After Pearl Harbor
A Japanese American unfurled this banner the day after the Pearl Harbor attack. This Dorothea Lange photograph was taken in March 1942, just prior to the man's internment.The attack on Pearl Harbor on December 7, 1
