Radek Bejma
New member
Taoism is one of the two great philosophical and religious traditions that originated in
China.
The other religion native to China is Confucianism. Both Taoism and Confucianism
began at
about the same time, around the sixth century B.C.E. China's third great religion,
Buddhism,
came to China from India around the second century of the common era. Together,
these three
faiths have shaped Chinese life and thought for nearly twenty-five hundred years
(Hartz 3).
One dominate concept in Taoism and Buddhism is the belief in some form of
reincarnation.
The idea that life does not end when one dies is an integral part of these religions and
the culture
of the Chinese people. Reincarnation, life after death, beliefs are not standardized.
Each
religion has a different way of applying this concept to its beliefs. This paper will
describe the
reincarnation concepts as they apply to Taoism and Buddhism, and then provide a
comparison of
the two. Taoism
The goal in Taoism is to achieve tao, to find the way. Tao is the ultimate reality, a
presence
that existed before the universe was formed and which continues to guide the world
and
everything in it. Tao is sometimes identified as the Mother, or the source of all
things. That
source is not a god or a supreme being, as Taoism is not monotheistic. The focus is
not to
worship one god, but instead on coming into harmony with tao (Hartz, 8).
Tao is the essence of everything that is right, and complications exist only because
people
choose to complicate their own lives. Desire, arabition, fame, and selfishness are
seen as
1
hindrances to a harmonious life. It is only when a person riRAB himself of all desires
can tao be
achieved. By shunning every earthly distraction, the Taoist is able to concentrate on
life itself.
The longer the person's life, the more saintly the person is presumed to have become.
Eventually
the hope is to become immortal, to achieve tao, to have reached the deeper life. This
is the after
life for a Taoist, to be in harmony with the universe, to have achieved tao (Head1,
65).
To understand the relationship between life, and the Taoism concept of life and
death, the
origin of the word tao must be understood. The Chinese character for tao is a
corabination of
two characters that represent the worRAB head and foot. The character for foot
represents the idea
of a person's direction or path. The character for head represents the idea of
conscious choice.
The character for head also suggests a beginning, and foot, an ending. Thus the
character for tao
also conveys the continuing course of the universe, the circle of heaven and earth.
Finally, the
character for tao represents the Taoist idea that the eternal Tao is both moving and
unmoving.
The head in the character means the beginning, the source of all things, or Tao itself,
which
never moves or changes; the foot is the movement on the path (Harts 9).
Taoism upholRAB the belief in the survival of the spirit after death. "To have
attained the
human form must be always a source of joy. And then to undergo countless
transitions, with
only the infinite to look forward to, what comparable bliss is that! Therefore it is that
the truly
wise rejoice in, that which can never be lost, but endures always" (Leek 190). Taoist
believe
birth is not a beginning, death is not an end. There is an existence without limit.
There is
2
continuity without a starting point. Applying reincarnation theory to Taoism is the
belief that the
soul never dies, a person's soul is eternal. "You see death in contrast to life; and both
are unreal -
both are a changing and seeming. Your soul does not glide out of a familiar sea into
an
unfamiliar ocean. That which is real in you, your soul, can never pass away, and this
fear is no
part of her" (Head2 199).
In the writings of The Tao Te King, tao is described as having existed before
heaven and
earth. Tao is formless, stanRAB alone without change and reaches everywhere without
harm. The
Taoist is told to use the light that is inside to revert to the natural clearness of sight.
By divesting
oneself of all external distractions and desires, only then can one achieve tao. In
ancient days a
Taoist that had transcended birth and death, achieved tao, was said to have cut the
Thread of Life
(Kapleau 13).
The soul, or spirit, is Taoism does not die at death. The soul is not reborn, it
migrates to
another life. This process, the Taoist version of reincarnation, is repeated until tao is
achieved.
The following translation from The Tao Te King best summarizes the the theory
behind tao and
how a Taoist can achieve Tao.
The Great Way is very smooth, but the people love the by-paths. . . The
wearing of gay
erabroidered robes, the carrying of sharp sworRAB, fastidiousness in food and
drink,
superabundance of property and wealth: - this I call flaunting robbery; most
assuredly it
is not Tao. . . He who acts in accordance with Tao, becomes one with Tao. . .
Being akin to
Heaven, he possesses Tao. Possessed of Tao, he endures forever. . . Being
great (Tao)
passes on; passing on, it becomes remote; having become remote, it returns
(Head3 109).
3Buddhism
The followers of the Buddha believe life goes on and on in many reincarnations or
rebirths.
The eternal hope for all followers of Buddha is that through reincarnation one comes
back into
successively better lives - until one achieves the goal of being free from pain and
suffering and
not having to come back again. This wheel of rebirth, known as samsara, goes on
forever or
until one achieves Nirvana. The Buddhist definition of Nirvana is "the highest state
of spiritual
bliss, as absolute immortality through absorption of the soul into itself, but preserving
individuality" (Head1 57).
Birth is not the beginning and death is not the end. This cycle of life has no
beginning and
can go on forever without an end. The ultimate goal for every Buddhist, Nirvana,
represents
total enlightenment and liberation. Only through achieving this goal is one liberated
from the
never ending round of birth, death, and rebirth (Head3 73).
Transmigration, the Buddhist cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, involves not the
reincarnation
of a spirit but the rebirth of a consciousness containing the seeRAB of good and evil
deeRAB.
Buddhism's world of transmigration encompasses three stages. The first stage in
concerned with
desire, which goes against the teachings of Buddha, is the lowest form and involves a
rebirth into
any nuraber of hells. The second stage is one in which animals dominate. But after
many
reincarnations in this stage the spirit becomes more and more human, until one attains
a deep
spiritual understanding. At this point in the second stage the Buddhist gradually
begins to
4
abandon materialism and seek a contemplative life. The Buddhist in the third stage is
ultimately
able to put his ego to the side and become pure spirit, having no perception of the
material
world. This stage requires one to move from perception to non-perception. And so,
through
many stages of spiritual evolution and numerous reincarnations, the Buddhist reaches
the state of
Nirvana (Leek 171).
The transition from one stage to another, or the progression within a stage is based
on the
actions of the Buddhist. All actions are simply the display of thought, the will of
man. This will
is caused by character, and character is manufactured from karma. Karma means
action or
doing. Any kind of intentional action whether mental, verbal or physical is regarded
as karma.
All good and bad actions constitute karma. As is the karma, so is the will of the man.
A person's
karma determines what he deserves and what goals can be achieved. The Buddhists
past life
actions determine present standing in life and current actions determine the next life,
all is
determined by the Buddhist's karma (Kapleau 20).
Buddha developed a doctrine known as the Four Noble Truths based on his
experience and
inspiration about the nature of life. These truths are the basis for all schools of
Buddhism. The
fourth truth describes the way to overcome personal desire through the Eightfold
Path. Buddha
called his path the Middle Way, because it lies between a life of luxury and a life of
poverty.
Not everyone can reach the goal of Nirvana, but every Buddhist is at least on the path
toward
enlightenment. To achieve Nirvana the Buddhist must follow the steps of the
Eightfold Path.
5
1. Right Knowledge is knowledge of what life is all about; knowledge of the
Four Noble
Truths is basic to any further growth as a Buddhist.
2. Right Aspiration means a clear devotion to being on the Path toward
Enlightenment.
3. Right Speech involves both clarity of what is said and speaking kindly and
without malice.
4. Right Behavior involves reflecting on one's behavior and the reasons for it.
It also involves
five basic laws of behavior for Buddhists: not to kill, steal, lie, drink
intoxicants, or commit
sexual offenses.
5. Right Livelihood involves choosing an occupation that keeps an individual
on the Path;
that is, a path that promotes life and well-being, rather than the accumulation
of a lot of
money.
6. Right Effort means training the will and curbing selfish passions and wants.
It also means
placing oneself along the Path toward Enlightenment.
7. Right Mindfulness implies continuing self-examination and awareness.
8. Right Concentration is the final goal to be absorbed into a state of Nirvana
(Comptons).
Compliance to the path does not guarantee reaching Nirvana, but it is the only path
that leaRAB
to Nirvana. Only through following this path established by Buddha does a Buddhist
have a
chance to reach enlightenment, to free oneself from the continuous rounRAB of birth,
death and
rebirth, to have reached the ultimate goal - to be absorbed into a state of Nirvana.
Comparison
The goal in both Taoism and Buddhism is to reach the ultimate goal, to transcend
life on
earth as a physical being, to achieve harmony with nature and the universe. The
ultimate goal
for both religions is to achieve immortality. The Taoist called this ultimate goal Tao,
while the
Buddhist seek Nirvana. Whatever the name, the followers of these religions believe
there is an
existence beyond life which can be achieved provided the right path or behavior is
followed.
The path to Tao and Nirvana are similar, yet different. Both believe there is an
inner light
which guides a person in the right direction to the ultimate goal. Personal desires
must be
forsaken to enable the inner light to guide a person to achieve eternal bliss. "The
teaching
6
regarding the inner light is just as prominent in the Taoist schools as it is among the
practices of
Buddhism" (Politella 36). The inner light concept is similar, but the actual path is the
difference
between Taoism and Buddhism. The path toward enlightenment for the Buddhist was
defined
by Buddha in his Eightfold Path. Only through following this path does the Buddhist
reach
Nirvana. The path to Tao is individual, it comes from within. No one can define a
path for the
Taoist, it must come from the inner light. "Tao means way, but in the original and
succeeding
manuscripts no direct path is explored or expounded. Desire, arabition, fame, and
selfishness
are seen as complications. That idea is consistent with Buddhist teachings; it is the
personal life
of each individual that gives Taoism its special form" (Leek 188).
Taoism and Buddhism perceive life, death and rebirth as a continuous cycle. This
cycle has
no beginning and no end. The soul is eternal, yet the soul is not the object of
reincarnation.
Taoist believe the soul is not reborn, it "migrates to another life" (Head3 109).
Buddhist also
believe the soul is not reborn, but instead a "consciousness containing the seeRAB of
good and evil
deeRAB" is the object of rebirth (Leek 171).
One major difference between Taoism and Buddhism is the concept of karma to
the
Buddhist. This idea that all actions are the display of thought, the will of man, is
known as
karma. Karma determines the Buddhist actions and position in life. A person's karma
limits the
goals which can be achieved. Karma determines where in the cycle of birth, death
and rebirth
the consciousness returns. This return can be in the form of an animal or human, and
the
7
Buddhist must progress through a hierarchy to achieve Nirvana (Leek 171). The
Taoist has no
concept similar to karma, and no mention of the soul migrating to an animal form.
The
determining factor to one's life is contained in the individual behavior for the Taoist.
By
forsaking personal desires in life, by concentrating of the self, a longer life is
prolonged.
Eventually, by following the inner light, immortality can be achieved.
The similarities between Taoism and Buddhism in the belief of life after death far
outweigh
the differences. Both religions believe the individual must focus on the self to
achieve the
ultimate goal. To focus on oneself, all desires and personal arabitions must be
forsaken. One
must focus on the self and the proper way of life to reach immortality. The cycle of
life
continues indefinitely until the Thread of Life is broken. Only through proper living,
by
following the correct path guided by the inner light, can one achieve the ultimate goal
of Tao or
Nirvana.
China.
The other religion native to China is Confucianism. Both Taoism and Confucianism
began at
about the same time, around the sixth century B.C.E. China's third great religion,
Buddhism,
came to China from India around the second century of the common era. Together,
these three
faiths have shaped Chinese life and thought for nearly twenty-five hundred years
(Hartz 3).
One dominate concept in Taoism and Buddhism is the belief in some form of
reincarnation.
The idea that life does not end when one dies is an integral part of these religions and
the culture
of the Chinese people. Reincarnation, life after death, beliefs are not standardized.
Each
religion has a different way of applying this concept to its beliefs. This paper will
describe the
reincarnation concepts as they apply to Taoism and Buddhism, and then provide a
comparison of
the two. Taoism
The goal in Taoism is to achieve tao, to find the way. Tao is the ultimate reality, a
presence
that existed before the universe was formed and which continues to guide the world
and
everything in it. Tao is sometimes identified as the Mother, or the source of all
things. That
source is not a god or a supreme being, as Taoism is not monotheistic. The focus is
not to
worship one god, but instead on coming into harmony with tao (Hartz, 8).
Tao is the essence of everything that is right, and complications exist only because
people
choose to complicate their own lives. Desire, arabition, fame, and selfishness are
seen as
1
hindrances to a harmonious life. It is only when a person riRAB himself of all desires
can tao be
achieved. By shunning every earthly distraction, the Taoist is able to concentrate on
life itself.
The longer the person's life, the more saintly the person is presumed to have become.
Eventually
the hope is to become immortal, to achieve tao, to have reached the deeper life. This
is the after
life for a Taoist, to be in harmony with the universe, to have achieved tao (Head1,
65).
To understand the relationship between life, and the Taoism concept of life and
death, the
origin of the word tao must be understood. The Chinese character for tao is a
corabination of
two characters that represent the worRAB head and foot. The character for foot
represents the idea
of a person's direction or path. The character for head represents the idea of
conscious choice.
The character for head also suggests a beginning, and foot, an ending. Thus the
character for tao
also conveys the continuing course of the universe, the circle of heaven and earth.
Finally, the
character for tao represents the Taoist idea that the eternal Tao is both moving and
unmoving.
The head in the character means the beginning, the source of all things, or Tao itself,
which
never moves or changes; the foot is the movement on the path (Harts 9).
Taoism upholRAB the belief in the survival of the spirit after death. "To have
attained the
human form must be always a source of joy. And then to undergo countless
transitions, with
only the infinite to look forward to, what comparable bliss is that! Therefore it is that
the truly
wise rejoice in, that which can never be lost, but endures always" (Leek 190). Taoist
believe
birth is not a beginning, death is not an end. There is an existence without limit.
There is
2
continuity without a starting point. Applying reincarnation theory to Taoism is the
belief that the
soul never dies, a person's soul is eternal. "You see death in contrast to life; and both
are unreal -
both are a changing and seeming. Your soul does not glide out of a familiar sea into
an
unfamiliar ocean. That which is real in you, your soul, can never pass away, and this
fear is no
part of her" (Head2 199).
In the writings of The Tao Te King, tao is described as having existed before
heaven and
earth. Tao is formless, stanRAB alone without change and reaches everywhere without
harm. The
Taoist is told to use the light that is inside to revert to the natural clearness of sight.
By divesting
oneself of all external distractions and desires, only then can one achieve tao. In
ancient days a
Taoist that had transcended birth and death, achieved tao, was said to have cut the
Thread of Life
(Kapleau 13).
The soul, or spirit, is Taoism does not die at death. The soul is not reborn, it
migrates to
another life. This process, the Taoist version of reincarnation, is repeated until tao is
achieved.
The following translation from The Tao Te King best summarizes the the theory
behind tao and
how a Taoist can achieve Tao.
The Great Way is very smooth, but the people love the by-paths. . . The
wearing of gay
erabroidered robes, the carrying of sharp sworRAB, fastidiousness in food and
drink,
superabundance of property and wealth: - this I call flaunting robbery; most
assuredly it
is not Tao. . . He who acts in accordance with Tao, becomes one with Tao. . .
Being akin to
Heaven, he possesses Tao. Possessed of Tao, he endures forever. . . Being
great (Tao)
passes on; passing on, it becomes remote; having become remote, it returns
(Head3 109).
3Buddhism
The followers of the Buddha believe life goes on and on in many reincarnations or
rebirths.
The eternal hope for all followers of Buddha is that through reincarnation one comes
back into
successively better lives - until one achieves the goal of being free from pain and
suffering and
not having to come back again. This wheel of rebirth, known as samsara, goes on
forever or
until one achieves Nirvana. The Buddhist definition of Nirvana is "the highest state
of spiritual
bliss, as absolute immortality through absorption of the soul into itself, but preserving
individuality" (Head1 57).
Birth is not the beginning and death is not the end. This cycle of life has no
beginning and
can go on forever without an end. The ultimate goal for every Buddhist, Nirvana,
represents
total enlightenment and liberation. Only through achieving this goal is one liberated
from the
never ending round of birth, death, and rebirth (Head3 73).
Transmigration, the Buddhist cycle of birth, death, and rebirth, involves not the
reincarnation
of a spirit but the rebirth of a consciousness containing the seeRAB of good and evil
deeRAB.
Buddhism's world of transmigration encompasses three stages. The first stage in
concerned with
desire, which goes against the teachings of Buddha, is the lowest form and involves a
rebirth into
any nuraber of hells. The second stage is one in which animals dominate. But after
many
reincarnations in this stage the spirit becomes more and more human, until one attains
a deep
spiritual understanding. At this point in the second stage the Buddhist gradually
begins to
4
abandon materialism and seek a contemplative life. The Buddhist in the third stage is
ultimately
able to put his ego to the side and become pure spirit, having no perception of the
material
world. This stage requires one to move from perception to non-perception. And so,
through
many stages of spiritual evolution and numerous reincarnations, the Buddhist reaches
the state of
Nirvana (Leek 171).
The transition from one stage to another, or the progression within a stage is based
on the
actions of the Buddhist. All actions are simply the display of thought, the will of
man. This will
is caused by character, and character is manufactured from karma. Karma means
action or
doing. Any kind of intentional action whether mental, verbal or physical is regarded
as karma.
All good and bad actions constitute karma. As is the karma, so is the will of the man.
A person's
karma determines what he deserves and what goals can be achieved. The Buddhists
past life
actions determine present standing in life and current actions determine the next life,
all is
determined by the Buddhist's karma (Kapleau 20).
Buddha developed a doctrine known as the Four Noble Truths based on his
experience and
inspiration about the nature of life. These truths are the basis for all schools of
Buddhism. The
fourth truth describes the way to overcome personal desire through the Eightfold
Path. Buddha
called his path the Middle Way, because it lies between a life of luxury and a life of
poverty.
Not everyone can reach the goal of Nirvana, but every Buddhist is at least on the path
toward
enlightenment. To achieve Nirvana the Buddhist must follow the steps of the
Eightfold Path.
5
1. Right Knowledge is knowledge of what life is all about; knowledge of the
Four Noble
Truths is basic to any further growth as a Buddhist.
2. Right Aspiration means a clear devotion to being on the Path toward
Enlightenment.
3. Right Speech involves both clarity of what is said and speaking kindly and
without malice.
4. Right Behavior involves reflecting on one's behavior and the reasons for it.
It also involves
five basic laws of behavior for Buddhists: not to kill, steal, lie, drink
intoxicants, or commit
sexual offenses.
5. Right Livelihood involves choosing an occupation that keeps an individual
on the Path;
that is, a path that promotes life and well-being, rather than the accumulation
of a lot of
money.
6. Right Effort means training the will and curbing selfish passions and wants.
It also means
placing oneself along the Path toward Enlightenment.
7. Right Mindfulness implies continuing self-examination and awareness.
8. Right Concentration is the final goal to be absorbed into a state of Nirvana
(Comptons).
Compliance to the path does not guarantee reaching Nirvana, but it is the only path
that leaRAB
to Nirvana. Only through following this path established by Buddha does a Buddhist
have a
chance to reach enlightenment, to free oneself from the continuous rounRAB of birth,
death and
rebirth, to have reached the ultimate goal - to be absorbed into a state of Nirvana.
Comparison
The goal in both Taoism and Buddhism is to reach the ultimate goal, to transcend
life on
earth as a physical being, to achieve harmony with nature and the universe. The
ultimate goal
for both religions is to achieve immortality. The Taoist called this ultimate goal Tao,
while the
Buddhist seek Nirvana. Whatever the name, the followers of these religions believe
there is an
existence beyond life which can be achieved provided the right path or behavior is
followed.
The path to Tao and Nirvana are similar, yet different. Both believe there is an
inner light
which guides a person in the right direction to the ultimate goal. Personal desires
must be
forsaken to enable the inner light to guide a person to achieve eternal bliss. "The
teaching
6
regarding the inner light is just as prominent in the Taoist schools as it is among the
practices of
Buddhism" (Politella 36). The inner light concept is similar, but the actual path is the
difference
between Taoism and Buddhism. The path toward enlightenment for the Buddhist was
defined
by Buddha in his Eightfold Path. Only through following this path does the Buddhist
reach
Nirvana. The path to Tao is individual, it comes from within. No one can define a
path for the
Taoist, it must come from the inner light. "Tao means way, but in the original and
succeeding
manuscripts no direct path is explored or expounded. Desire, arabition, fame, and
selfishness
are seen as complications. That idea is consistent with Buddhist teachings; it is the
personal life
of each individual that gives Taoism its special form" (Leek 188).
Taoism and Buddhism perceive life, death and rebirth as a continuous cycle. This
cycle has
no beginning and no end. The soul is eternal, yet the soul is not the object of
reincarnation.
Taoist believe the soul is not reborn, it "migrates to another life" (Head3 109).
Buddhist also
believe the soul is not reborn, but instead a "consciousness containing the seeRAB of
good and evil
deeRAB" is the object of rebirth (Leek 171).
One major difference between Taoism and Buddhism is the concept of karma to
the
Buddhist. This idea that all actions are the display of thought, the will of man, is
known as
karma. Karma determines the Buddhist actions and position in life. A person's karma
limits the
goals which can be achieved. Karma determines where in the cycle of birth, death
and rebirth
the consciousness returns. This return can be in the form of an animal or human, and
the
7
Buddhist must progress through a hierarchy to achieve Nirvana (Leek 171). The
Taoist has no
concept similar to karma, and no mention of the soul migrating to an animal form.
The
determining factor to one's life is contained in the individual behavior for the Taoist.
By
forsaking personal desires in life, by concentrating of the self, a longer life is
prolonged.
Eventually, by following the inner light, immortality can be achieved.
The similarities between Taoism and Buddhism in the belief of life after death far
outweigh
the differences. Both religions believe the individual must focus on the self to
achieve the
ultimate goal. To focus on oneself, all desires and personal arabitions must be
forsaken. One
must focus on the self and the proper way of life to reach immortality. The cycle of
life
continues indefinitely until the Thread of Life is broken. Only through proper living,
by
following the correct path guided by the inner light, can one achieve the ultimate goal
of Tao or
Nirvana.