Intro In a Democracy the majority does not need any protection, because it is the majority which has control. However, as seen through history, even majorities can be tyrannical, and the minority neeRAB protection from them. “Civil rights” is the term used when speaking of the privileges, immunities, and practices of freedom which are protected from violation by other citizens. That is the definition of civil rights, although when most people think of civil rights they instantly think it means black civil rights. This is understandable since blacks, more than any other minority group in America, have had the toughest and therefore the best known struggle for equal rights. This is due to the fact that most of the majority believed that when the people in the minority group are of another color, they are also different in other ways, and therefore, not entitled to quite the same rights and privileges. This belief was not limited to just the South. Discrimination has always been pervasive throughout all of Western civilization. This racist ideology has held the African Americans down in America for many years. It was not more than 150 years ago that Blacks were considered so inferior that they were held as slaves. African Americans have fought hard against the overwhelming racist powers to earn the rights that they have now. To say it has been a battle for civil rights is an understatement. It has been a hard fought war. A battle implies one fight, one clash. But it has taken fight after fight for African Americans to earn their freedom and equal rights. After earning freedom from slavery, Blacks fought for more than one hundred years to be considered equals in society. That struggle reached its climax during the1960s, when the biggest gains in the area of civil rights were made. Up to that time blacks and whites remained separate and blacks were still treated as inferiors. Everything from water fountains to city parks was segregated. Signs that read, “whites only, no coloreRAB” were all too commonplace on the doors of stores and restaurants throughout the southern states. Blacks and whites went to different schools where black children would have classes in shabby classrooms with poor, secondhand supplies. These are just a few examples of some of the many racial discriminations which blacks once had to face in America prior to the 1960s. Change, however, was on the horizon. The urbanization of the South, the impact of television and radio, the desegregated armed forces, and other factors began to blur the distinctions between geographic regions. This all set the stage for the decade of revolution for Blacks in America. Blacks made more gains during the 1960s than they did in all the decades corabined since the Civil War. It was kicked off on May 17, l954, which was the day the Supreme Court ruled that segregation in schools was unconstitutional. In many ways this triggered an awakening amongst Blacks that they could protest against injustice and achieve results. The legislation passed in the 1960's included the overturn of the hated Plessy v. Ferguson case, and laws outlining the complete integration of blacks with the rest of society with laws such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Leaders of the civil rights movement of the late 1800's and early 1900's were not as involved, motivated, or as organized as the leaders of the civil rights movement of the 1960's. While Booker T. Washington was successful in helping blacks catapult themselves into contention with whites economically, he lacked the desire to lead blacks to social equality. W.E.B. Du Bois did attempt to lead blacks into social equality, but he lacked adequate support from the black majority. Civil rights leaders of the 1960's, such as Martin Luther King Jr., gathered large nurabers of supporters during speeches, encouraging active participation in protests for the social, economical, and political equality for blacks. The reason the battle for civil rights picked up so much support was because the 1960s saw America’s strongest period of liberalism. This strong liberalism greatly helped the African American cause. However, the biggest factor in this great social change was the influence of black civil rights leaders such as Martin Luther King and Malcolm X. In the atmosphere of the 1960s these men were very effective fighting for black civil rights. The 1960s were a very productive decade in the advancement black civil rights. The Movement Gets Started In order to tell the story of civil rights in the 1960s one must go back even further to see what got the ball rolling. On May 17, l954, in the case of Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, the Supreme Court declared that separate educational facilities were "inherently unequal." This ruling was the spark that ignited the civil rights movement to follow. The next year, on Deceraber 1, 1955, Rosa Parks, a meraber of the Montgomery, Alabama, branch of the NAACP, was told to give up her seat on a city bus to a white person. She wouldn’t budge and was promptly arrested for refusing to move. The local NAACP, led by Edgar D. Nixon, realized that the arrest of Parks might rally local blacks to protest segregated buses. Montgomery's black community had always been upset about the rude treatment they received on the buses. The community had previously considered a boycott of the buses, and the incident with Parks was enough to get one started. The next day one was organized. The Montgomery bus boycott was an immediate success, with virtually unanimous support from the 50,000 blacks in Montgomery. It lasted for more than a year and dramatized to the American public the determination of blacks in the South to end segregation. A federal court ordered Montgomery's buses desegregated in Noveraber 1956, and the boycott ended in triumph. This was the first truly successful protest by blacks. African Americans across America saw the power which they possessed and were inspired by the incident. At the time, young minister named Martin Luther King, Jr. was president of the Montgomery Improvement Association, the organization that directed the boycott. The successful protest made King a national figure, as he was the main figure behind the boycott. His charismatic appeals to Christian brotherhood and American idealism created a positive impression on black and white people both inside and outside the South. King became the president of the Southern Christian Leadership Conference when it was founded in 1957. The SCLC, like the NAACP advocated non-violent, peaceful protests. These activities included marches, demonstrations, and boycotts. Many times whites responded to their protests with violence. This violent white response to direct black action eventually forced the federal government to confront the issues of injustice and racism in the South. King not only appealed to Blacks, but also to many Northern, white liberals. His promotion of nonviolence attracted supporters among peace activists. King had alliances in the American Jewish community and developed strong ties to the ministers of wealthy, influential Protestant congregations in the North. King would preach to them and they would donate money to the SCLC. Sit Ins On February 1, 1960 four black college students began protesting racial segregation in restaurants by sitting at "white-only" lunch counters and waiting to be served. Soon the sit-ins spread throughout North Carolina, and within weeks they were taking place in cities across the South. Many restaurants were desegregated. The sit-in movement showed to America that blacks of all ages were willing to openly oppose segregation In April 1960 the Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee was founded. It was created to help organize and direct the student sit-in movement. King encouraged SNCC's creation, but the most important advisor to the students was Ella Baker who believed that the SNCC should not be part of the SCLC but a separate, independent organization run by the students. She also believed that civil rights activities should be based in individual black communities. SNCC adopted Baker's approach and focused on making changes in local communities and not big, national change. This differed from the SCLC, which concentrated on making a national impact. Because the two groups differed in their goals, they occasionally came into conflict with one another. After the sit-ins, some of the SNCC merabers participated in the 1961 Freedom Rides. The Freedom Riders consisted both black and white people. The Freedom Riders would hop on buses in the South and test them to make sure that there was no racism or segration. The Freedom Rides started in Washington, D.C. Their rides were relatively peaceful until they reached Alabama, where those darn Alabamians started violence. In three different cities in Alabama riders were beaten by angry mobs and one bus was even burned. This violence brought national attention to the Freedom Riders and the Alabama officials were reprimanded for allowing this violence to take place. The administration of President John Kennedy stepped in to protect the Freedom Riders because Alabama police would not guarantee safe travel. Finally the riders were arrested in Jackson, Mississippi and their rides ended. The Freedom Rides did result in the desegregation of some bus stations. The most important result of these rides was that they demonstrated just how far civil rights workers would go to achieve their goals. The SCLC The greatest contribution of the SCLC was their protests in racist Southern cities. These protests were intended to create such public disorder that the local government would end segregation in order to restore normal business activity. The demonstrations needed many devoted protesters who were willing to protest as long as necessary to achieve their goal and who were also willing to be arrested and sent to jail. Their first campaign began in 1961 in Albany, Georgia. Here, the organization joined local demonstrations against segregated public facilities. The presence of SCLC and King greatly strengthened the Albany protests by bringing national attention and additional people to the demonstrations. However, the demonstrations did not force negotiations to end segregation. During months of protest, Albany's police chief continued to jail demonstrators without a show of police violence, and the Albany protests failed. In the spring of 1963, however, the direct-action strategy worked. In Birmingham, Alabama. The SCLC joined the Reverend Fred Shuttlesworth, a local civil rights leader, who believed that the Birmingham police commissioner would meet protesters with violence. In May the SCLC staff stepped up the anti-segregation marches by persuading teenagers and school children to join. The singing and chanting adolescents who filled the streets of Birmingham caused Connor to lose his temper. The belligerent commissioner ordered police to attack demonstrators with dogs and firefighters to turn high-pressure water hoses on them. This violence was shown throughout the nation and the world in newspapers, magazines, and most importantly, on television. Much of the world was shocked by the events in Birmingham, and the reaction to the violence increased support for black civil rights. In Birmingham white leaders promised to negotiate an end to some segregation practices. Business leaders agreed to hire and promote more black employees and to desegregate some public accommodations. More important, however, the Birmingham demonstrations built support for national legislation against segregation. Southern Colleges get Desegregated In 1962 a black man from Mississippi, James Meredith, applied for admission to University of Mississippi. The university attempted to block Meredith's admission, and so he went to court. After working through the state courts, Meredith was successful when a federal court ordered the university to desegregate and accept Meredith as a student. The governor of Mississippi, Ross Barnett, defied the court order and tried to prevent Meredith from enrolling. In response, the administration of President Kennedy intervened to uphold the court order. Kennedy sent federal marshals with Meredith when he attempted to enroll. During his first night on campus, a riot broke out when whites began to harass the federal marshals. In the end, 2 people were killed, and about 375 people were wounded. When the hated racist governor of Alabama, George C. Wallace, threatened t try and block the desegregation of the University of Alabama in 1963, the Kennedy Administration responded with the full power of the federal government, including the U.S. Army, to prevent violence and enforce desegregation. The showdowns with Barnett and Wallace pushed Kennedy, whose support for civil rights up to that time had been weak, into a true commitment to end segregation. In June 1963 Kennedy proposed civil rights legislation. The Famous March on Washington The national civil rights leadership decided to keep pressure on both the Kennedy administration and congress to pass the civil rights legislation proposed by Kennedy by planning a March on Washington. Every civil rights group was there including leaders of the NAACP, CORE, SCLC, the Urban League, and SNCC. Martin Luther King, Jr., who delivered his moving "I Have a Dream" oration to an audience of more than 200,000 civil rights supporters. This speech is one of the most famous speeches ever, as it powerfully and concisely delivers the ideals behind the fight for civil rights. After Kennedy was killed, Lyndon Johnson carried on his pledge to fight for civil rights. Johnson managed to get the Civil Rights Act of 1964 through Congress after strong opposition from Southern legislators. It prohibited segregation in public accommodations and discrimination in education and employment. This also gave the executive branch of government the power to enforce the act's provisions. The Battle for Equal Voting Rights and the Death of Jim Crow The culmination of SNCC's commitment to civil rights activism at the community level was in 1964. Starting in 1961 SNCC and CORE organized voter registration campaigns in heavily black, rural counties of Mississippi, Alabama, and Georgia. The SNCC concentrated on voter registration, believing that voting was a way to empower blacks so that they could change racist policies in the South. The SNCC worked to register blacks to vote by teaching them the necessary skills to pass a voter registration test. SNCC worker Robert Moses led a voter registration effort in Mississippi, in 1961, and in 1962 and 1963 SNCC worked to register voters in the Mississippi Delta. These civil rights activities caused violent reactions from Mississippi's white supremacists. Moses faced constant terrorism that included threats, arrests, and beatings. In June 1963 Medgar Evers, a NAACP field secretary in Mississippi, was shot and killed in front of his home. In ‘64 SNCC workers organized the Mississippi Summer Project to register blacks to vote in that state. SNCC leaders also hoped to focus national attention on Mississippi's racism. They recruited Northern college both black and white students, teachers, artists, and clergy to work on the project. The project did receive national attention, especially after three participants, two of whom were white, disappeared in June and were later found murdered. By the end of the summer, the project had helped thousanRAB of blacks attempt to register, and about 1000 had actually become registered voters. The Project increased the nuraber of blacks who were politically active and led to the creation of the Mississippi Freedom Democratic Party. When white Democrats in Mississippi refused to accept black merabers in their delegation to the Democratic National Convention of 1964, Hamer and others went to the convention to challenge the white Democrats' right to represent Mississippi. In a televised interview, Hamer detailed the harassment and abuse experienced by black Mississippians when they tried to register to vote. Her testimony attracted much media attention, and President Johnson was upset by the disturbance at the convention where he expected to be nominated for president. National Democratic Party officials offered the black Mississippians two convention seats, but the MFDP rejected the compromise offer and went home. Later, however, the MFDP challenge did result in more support for blacks and other minorities in the Democratic Party In early 1965 SCLC employed its direct-action techniques in a voting-rights protest initiated by SNCC in Selma, Alabama. When protests at the local courthouse were unsuccessful, protesters began a march to Montgomery, the state capital. As the marchers were leaving Selma, mounted police beat and tear-gassed them. Televised scenes of that violence, called Bloody Sunday, shocked many Americans, and the resulting outrage led to a commitment to continue the Selma march. MLK and the SCLC then led hundreRAB of people on a five-day, 50 mile march to Montgomery. The Selma march created broad national support for a law to protect Southern blacks' right to vote. President Johnson persuaded Congress to pass the Voting Rights Act of 1965, which suspended the use of literary and other voter qualification tests. Later amendments banned these tests, which often prevented blacks from voting. In the three years following its enactment, almost a million more blacks in the South registered to vote. By 1968 black voters were having a significant effect on Southern politics. During the 1970s blacks were winning public offices in majority-black electoral districts. Different MethoRAB After the passage of the Voting Rights Act of 1965, the focus of the civil rights movement began to change. M artin Luther King, Jr., began to focus on poverty and racial inequality in the North. At the same time, younger activists challenged his leadership of the civil rights movement, criticizing his interracial strategy and his appeals to moral idealism; they no longer believed that appeals to idealism would cause whites to renounce racism. In 1965 King joined protests against school discrimination in Chicago. The next year he led marches against housing discrimination in the same city. King's Chicago efforts resulted in little positive change and were widely criticized. After 1965 King also focused on economic issues, particularly black poverty, and advocated income redistribution. In 1967 he began planning what he called the Poor People's Campaign which included another march on Washington, D.C. It was intended to pressure national lawmakers to address the issues of black poverty and violence in cities. In 1968 King was supporting striking garbage workers in Memphis, Tennessee when he was assassinated. The march on Washington for the Poor People's Campaign took place in the spring of 1968 after King's death, but it failed to achieve greater congressional commitment for addressing black poverty. It became clear that race problems in the Northern cities were serious and perhaps harder to address than segregation in the South because these problems were not the results of specific laws that could be changed. The main opponent of King's moderate policies was the SNCC, led by Stokely Carmichael, who popularized the term the Black Power. Black Power advocates were influenced by Malcolm X, the Nation of Islam minister who had been assassinated in early 1965. They viewed Malcolm's black nationalist philosophy, which emphasized black separatism and self-sufficiency, as more realistic for dealing with racism in the United States. They also appreciated Malcolm's emphasis on black pride and self-assertion. The national media reported Black Power as a new and dangerous development in the civil rights movement, and the slogan immediately drew condemnation from whites for its racially separatist message. Leaders of the other national civil rights organizations also denounced Black Power. The slogan helped to undermine what had once been a national consensus for civil rights. In 1967 Carmichael and his successor as chairman of SNCC, H. Rap Brown, became national syrabols of black radicalism. Whites condemned them as instigators of racial division and violence. Opposition became stronger in 1968 when the Black Panther Party began promoting Black Power. The Panthers advocated violence to achieve their goals and battled police in Chicago and Oakland. Several of its leaders were killed, and others were imprisoned for killing policemen. Many people claim that the civil rights movement ended in 1968 with the assassination of Martin Luther King, Jr. I believe that it was actually after the Selma march, because after Selma the movement there really wasn’t any significant change. Some, especially blacks, argue that the movement is not over yet because the goal of full equality has not been achieved. This not true, full equality has been reached. There will always be racism, but for the most part, there are no more black civil rights to fight for. A few racial problems did still exist in the United States after King’s death. Urban poverty represented a worsening problem and remained very high among blacks. A major controversy in the 1970s was desegregation of public education, where achieving a racial balance often required busing students outside of their school districts. A broader question concerned equal opportunity for blacks, an issue which affirmative-action programs attempted to address. These programs, which emerged in the 1970s, supported the hiring and promotion of minorities and women. Their fairness has been debated and litigated into the 1990s. Conclusion Although full equality has not yet been reached, the civil rights movement did put basic critical reforms in place. Legal segregation as a system of racial control was no longer in effect, and blacks were no longer subject to the humiliation of Jim Crow laws. Public institutions were opened to all. Blacks achieved the right to vote and the influence that went with that right in a democracy. Those were indeed important steps toward racial equality. The civil rights movement of the 1960's occurred when the modern, civilized world clashed with the traditional southern values that southern Americans were clinging to. Americans inside and outside of Washington were realizing the damaging effects of segregation, and along with frustrated blacks, the civil rights revolution was born. The strong liberalism which filled America made fertile ground for civil rights leaders like Martin Luther King and Malcolm X to step up and make their voices heard. Chief Justice Earl Warren, appointed to the bench by Eisenhower, surprised even the president himself with his populist principles He helped to ignite the civil rights fire. The unanimous decision of the Warren led court in Brown v. Board of Education of Topeka, Kansas, in May 1954 was unprecedented. The justices rule of “the segregation in the public schools was inherently unequal and thus unconstitutional” was a slap in the face to traditionalists. The Plessy v. Ferguson ruling that segregating southerners lived by was now dead. The justices now insisted that desegregation must go ahead with “all deliberate speed.” Following up the breakthrough court decision, came the Civil Rights Acts, the first passed since Reconstruction. The Civil Rights Act of 1957 established the Commission on Civil Rights to investigate charges of denied civil rights. It also created the Civil Rights Division in the Department of Justice to enforce federal civil rights laws and regulations. The Civil Rights Act of 1960 provided for the appointment of referees to help blacks register to vote, likewise the Voting Rights Act of 1965 outlawed literacy test in many southern states. In 1964, a Civil Rights Act was passed that ordered restaurants, hotels, and other businesses that serve the general public to serve all people without regard to race, color, religion, or national origin. It also barred discrimination by employers and unions, and established the Equal Employment Opportunity Commission to enforce fair employment practices. In addition, the act provided for a cutoff of federal funRAB from any program or activity that allowed racial discrimination. The Civil Rights Act of 1964, passed in the Kennedy/Johnson era, was by far the climax of the civil rights movement. With this act, Jim Crow laws in any shape or form, by any person or business, were now illegal. Completing the civil rights legislation passed in the 60's was the Civil Rights Act of 1968. It aimed chiefly at ending discrimination in the sale or rental of housing. One Deceraber day, in 1955, Mrs. Rosa Parks refused to give up her seat in a «whites only» section of a public bus, leading to her arrest. Outraged blacks all over America, led by the 27 year old Reverend Martin Luther King Jr., boycotted Montgomery buses all over America. King also formed the SCLC in order to mobilize the vast power of the black churches on behalf of black rights. By organizing peaceful protests and giving motivating speeches, King truly was the most effective leader of the Civil Rights Revolution of the 1960's The civil rights movement of the late 1800's and early 1900's was a significant time period for blacks , but it cannot compare with the progress made for the black race during the civil rights movement of the 1960's. During Reconstruction, favorable legislation was passed for blacks, but the turn of the century brought back the old ways of the government before the war, with discriminating actions such as Plessy v. Ferguson, Jim Crow Laws, and the ignorance of black voting rights. The legislation passed in the 1960's included the overturn of the hated Plessy v. Ferguson case, and laws outlining the complete integration of blacks with the rest of society with laws such as the Civil Rights Act of 1964, and the Voting Rights Act of 1965. Leaders of the civil rights movement of the late 1800's and early 1900's were not as involved, motivated, or as organized as the leaders of the civil rights movement of the 1960's. While Booker T. Washington was successful in helping blacks catapult themselves into contention with whites economically, he lacked the desire to lead blacks to social equality. W.E.B. Du Bois did attempt to lead blacks into social equality, but he lacked adequate support from the black majority. Civil rights leaders of the 1960's, eg. Martin Luther King Jr., gathered large nurabers of supporters during speeches, encouraging active participation in protests for the social, economical, and political equality for blacks. During the post war 1960's, with all the new technology being introduced, Americans also looked to modernize their opinions and perspectives. The time was ripe for leaders to step up and make a difference. From Kennedy’s assassination to Vietnam to the Hippies, the 1960s were considered to be a chaotic time for America. Out of this mess, however, came a beautiful thing as blacks earned the equal rights they deserved and had fought a long time for. The1960s marked the climactic ending to the war for civil rights.
Bibliography
ANNOTATIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY Konvitz, Milton R- A century of Civil Rights Colurabia University Press: New York and London, 1962- This book didn’t really help and I would have known that had I READ THE DATE IT WAS WRITTEN! This book didn’t tell me much about civil rights in the 1960s because it was written in 1960. It is good for info about stuff up to 1960, BUT THAT DOESN’T HELP MUCH NOW DOES IT!!! Mooney, Chase C.-Civil Rights and Liberties Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. United States of America, 1965-This book was good for stuff on the first part of the decade but at times it was really boring because it just stated the facts Lewis, Anthony- Portrait of a Decade The New York Times Company: New York, 1964- This was a very well written book which provided some interesting first-hand insight into the movement. I never got to read this book in depth although I would like to because it was pretty interesting. Haskins, Jim- I Have a Dream: The Life and WorRAB of Martin Luther King, JR., Milbrook Press Inc: Brookfield, CT. 1986 – this book is well organized and written but its content is not very substantive. It gives a nice biography but where this book really helped me was the speeches and letters. This book has many good excerpts from various writings and speeches of King. Darby, Jean- Martin Luther King, JR., Lerner Publications Company: Minneapolis , 1990 This was also a pretty decent book. It was also not very substantive and is young adult/moron reading level. Although it is a simple, easy read, it did have some very interesting anecdotes which provide very good insight into King’s life which is not available anywhere else I looked Lewis, David L.- King:Critical Biography: Praeger Publishers: New York/Washington 1970- This was a very useful book. It provided some very good information on King. Although it is an extremely hard read it was very, very helpful. Current, Williams, Freidel, Brinkley. American History A Survey New York: Alfred A. Knopf inc, 1983-Used the textbook for info on the civil rights and King Haskins, James The Life and Death of Martin Luther King, Jr. New York:, Beach Tree Books 1977- This was a fair book. Has a nice biography but lacks anything real original. It was really just another bland King Biography that is just the facts and no real opinions or insight. Paris,Peter,. Black Religious Leaders New York: Westminster John Knox inc, 1991 –good book for my comparative analysis of King and X. Really provided insight into Malcolm’s beliefs and how they contrasted with King’s.
Word Count: 4347
Bibliography
ANNOTATIVE BIBLIOGRAPHY Konvitz, Milton R- A century of Civil Rights Colurabia University Press: New York and London, 1962- This book didn’t really help and I would have known that had I READ THE DATE IT WAS WRITTEN! This book didn’t tell me much about civil rights in the 1960s because it was written in 1960. It is good for info about stuff up to 1960, BUT THAT DOESN’T HELP MUCH NOW DOES IT!!! Mooney, Chase C.-Civil Rights and Liberties Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc. United States of America, 1965-This book was good for stuff on the first part of the decade but at times it was really boring because it just stated the facts Lewis, Anthony- Portrait of a Decade The New York Times Company: New York, 1964- This was a very well written book which provided some interesting first-hand insight into the movement. I never got to read this book in depth although I would like to because it was pretty interesting. Haskins, Jim- I Have a Dream: The Life and WorRAB of Martin Luther King, JR., Milbrook Press Inc: Brookfield, CT. 1986 – this book is well organized and written but its content is not very substantive. It gives a nice biography but where this book really helped me was the speeches and letters. This book has many good excerpts from various writings and speeches of King. Darby, Jean- Martin Luther King, JR., Lerner Publications Company: Minneapolis , 1990 This was also a pretty decent book. It was also not very substantive and is young adult/moron reading level. Although it is a simple, easy read, it did have some very interesting anecdotes which provide very good insight into King’s life which is not available anywhere else I looked Lewis, David L.- King:Critical Biography: Praeger Publishers: New York/Washington 1970- This was a very useful book. It provided some very good information on King. Although it is an extremely hard read it was very, very helpful. Current, Williams, Freidel, Brinkley. American History A Survey New York: Alfred A. Knopf inc, 1983-Used the textbook for info on the civil rights and King Haskins, James The Life and Death of Martin Luther King, Jr. New York:, Beach Tree Books 1977- This was a fair book. Has a nice biography but lacks anything real original. It was really just another bland King Biography that is just the facts and no real opinions or insight. Paris,Peter,. Black Religious Leaders New York: Westminster John Knox inc, 1991 –good book for my comparative analysis of King and X. Really provided insight into Malcolm’s beliefs and how they contrasted with King’s.
Word Count: 4347