Child Abuse: Who's at Risk and the Outcomes?
As Rothery and Cameron (1990) report "It is now clear from historical and epidemiological analysis that although child sexual abuse is a recently recognized problem, it has always been present in human societies and people of all ages including those born early in the present century can recall such abuse in their childhood (p. 183). In our society today we have become alarmingly familiar with reported cases of child sexual abuse. There has been many ideas written about how this abuse can be predicted. Socioeconomic status, race, and gender are thought to be determining factors of such abuse. Others have made predictions of outcomes of the abused such as depression, self-esteem, and suicidal behavior. This paper will show that it is more than just race and social status that can determine whether or not certain children are at risk. It will also show that the outcomes for the victims are very similar.
Risk Factors
In the worRAB of Gerbner, Ross, and Zigler (1980) "Malnourishment, sexual abuse, failure to feed and clothe a child, beating a child, torturing a child, withholding medical care from a child, allowing a child to live in a "deprived or depraved" environment, and keeping a child out of school have all been defined at various times and in various laws as "child abuse"(p. 82). The definition of child abuse varies over time, across cultures, and between different social and cultural groups. Many of the books and articles that were researched for this paper had difficulty defining child abuse. Professional groups were given a list of items and were told to choose which ones they considered to be child abuse. The results were at varying degrees which shows that there is not a precise definition that society adheres to when classifying such abuse. As Starr has noted, "Two major characteristics seem to be common to conditions defined as abuse. First, there must be some clear, identifiable harm or injury to the child and second, there must be evidence of clear intent on the part of the parent to produce this injury or harm" (p. 11).
Socioeconomic Status and Race
Parton points out that "There is substantial evidence of a strong relationship between poverty and child abuse and neglect"(p. 153). It has been stated that even though the public is now more aware of cases of child abuse, the proportion of the cases are still from the lower classes. It has been reported that "the most severe injuries have occurred in the poorest families"(Parton, 1985, p. 153). This may be true except some other factors are contributed. First the public examines lower socioeconomic classes with more bias. Second lower classes are more familiar with social agencies that have had access to their houses. Third professional groups have a tendency to classify lower class children with the same symptoms as middle class children as abused while classifying the middle class symptoms as accidents. In the worRAB of the researchers, Daniel, Hampton, and Newberger (1983), "Discussions with physicians and empirical research suggest that social and economic characteristics of families play an important role in determining which children are labeled as "abused." So before physicians report child abuse they take into account the parents' socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and the severity of injury. Physicians recognized black children two times higher to be victims of child abuse when given a similar injury over white children. Lower-class white children suffering from major injuries were more likely to be classified as abused than were upper-class white children"(p. 646). Social Learning Theory
When looking at factors to determine who is at risk, one must consider the social learning model. This says that people are in large a product of their social environment. This model is put into perspective by Gerbner et al (1980), "If people are indeed a product of their social history, then prevention of many of the conditions with which our professional fielRAB have been concerned means changing the social conditions. But this idea threatens economic arrangements that are very profitable. Moreover, it threatens the psychiatric establishment because it suggests that even battered children may become parents who are loving and supportive if their social worlRAB are more supportive and lead to improvements in self-esteem and competence. It implies that abusive parenting is not caused by internal defect but rather by the lack of access to jobs, housing, and educational opportunities controlled by those who control the system" (p. 115). If we are a product of our society then there neeRAB to be a point where we break the cycle of the repeating action of child abuse so that future generations will not learn from our mistakes.
Outcomes of Victims
In every case of child sexual abuse there are unique characteristics. Some victims go on to fully come to terms with what happened to them and others may not be as fortunate. Some are haunted by nightmares, questions of "Why me?" and feelings of shame. There is however an unfortunate similarity of characteristics of those that have experienced child abuse. School performance, self-esteem, weight, depression, and suicidal behavior have been attributed to victims.
School Performance
"The physically abused children studied stood out as markedly problematic in school, at home, and in the community, displaying academic deficits, problem behaviors, lowered self-esteem, delinquency, elevated feelings of aggression, and pervasive adjustment difficulties in a variety of contexts" (Rothery and Cameron, 1990, p. 510). School performance is greatly affected by child abuse. Victims have poor attendance, low self-esteem that contributes to not achieving high, and peer adjustment that affects them while in school.
Self-esteem
Victims generally experience low self-esteem throughout their lives. There is emotional and physical abuse that stays with the victim after the abuse has ended. This would have traumatic affects on one's self-esteem. "Such abuse is extremely prevalent, and serious sexual abuse affects about 20% of female and about 10% of male children. Such abuse also has serious and permanent mental health sequelae in up to about 25% of the victims" (Rothery and Cameron, 1990, p. 184). Many children due to the stress of the situation, remaining silent, and keeping the act from their mother experience diminished self-esteem.
The groundwork for self-esteem is laid during our childhood years and blossoms into one's identity during adulthood. When that groundwork is disturbed during childhood it can have devastating effects into adulthood. "Although symptoms of depression and suicidal feelings and behavior may emerge during the abuse, or early adolescence when the abuse has stopped or been revealed, the profound impairment of self-esteem puts the woman at long-term risk for the development of depression and suicidal ideation" (Rothery and Cameron, 1990, p. 200-201).
Depression and Suicidal Behavior
"Given the finding that sexual abuse victims have, as adults, elevated profiles on measures of depression, impaired self-esteem, and suicidal ideation, it is not surprising that a nuraber of studies have found that former victims of child sexual abuse have higher rates of self-harm than those who have not been abused" (Rothery and Cameron, 1990, p. 189). When the self-esteem is low one might become depressed and have ideas of suicide. When one is a victim of child abuse there is more damaging effects that reduce the self-esteem. They feel guilt for what has happened, some want to make themselves less pretty, and for others self-harm is just a cry for help. A predictor for suicidal behavior is both physical and sexual abuse in childhood. Preventing child sexual abuse before it happens would be the best treatment. This doesn't happen that often so the next thing would be early intervention.
Weight
"When pertinent demographic variables were taken into account, few overall differences were found between abused, accident, and comparison children. Among the characteristics where no differences were detected were health, language development, intellectual status in school, self-concept, and behavior. The abused differed significantly from their peers only in weight (abused were heavier) and in a few measures of impulsivity and aggression" (Elmer, 1977, p. 278). The lack of taking care of the victim's body could refer back to the previous paragraph. The victim is trying to make oneself less attractive. If they are less sexually attractive then they may be less sexually assaulted. In there own way weight gain may be a cry for help also. There immediate family or even close non-family merabers may question the sudden weight gain. This may be their way of not remaining silent.
In conclusion, this paper has explored the facts that to determine who is at risk for child abuse, one must look beyond race, gender, and socioeconomic status. It has been found that physician's may be biased in their opinions of reporting cases of abuse. Since this has been proven true how do we know that child abuse doesn't occur in higher levels of social status? We don't know so it is wrong to assume that we can predict and prevent abuse based upon social class and race. "There are more than two million reported cases of child abuse each year and in a given year 1,300 children will die of abuse or neglect. Because of the private nature of this violence and the desire of family merabers to keep it hidden, all of these figures are almost certainly underestimates" (Newman, 1995, p. 246). This paper has come to the conclusion that child abuse, all kinRAB, are found in every class, race, and religion.
References
Daniel, J.H., Hampton, R.L., and Newberger, E.H. (1983, October).
Child Abuse and Accidents in Black Families: A Controlled Comparative Study. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 53(4), 645-653.
Elmer, E. (1977, February). A Follow-up Study of Traumatized Children. Pediatrics, 59(2), 273-279.
Gerbner, G., Ross, C. & Zigler, E. (1980). Child Abuse: An Agenda for Action. New York: Oxford University Press.
Newman, D.M. (1995). Sociology. California: Pine Forge Press.
Parton, N. (19850. The Politics of Child Abuse. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Rothery, M. & Cameron, G. (1990).
Child Maltreatment: Expanding Our Concept of Helping. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Starr Jr., R.H. (1982). Child Abuse Prediction. Massachusetts: Ballinger Publishing Company.
Wodarski, J.S., Kurtz, P.D., Gaudin Jr., J.M., & Howing, P.T. (1990, Noveraber). Maltreatment and the School-
Age Child: Major Academic Socioemotional, and Adaptive Outcomes. Social Work, 35(6), 506-512.
As Rothery and Cameron (1990) report "It is now clear from historical and epidemiological analysis that although child sexual abuse is a recently recognized problem, it has always been present in human societies and people of all ages including those born early in the present century can recall such abuse in their childhood (p. 183). In our society today we have become alarmingly familiar with reported cases of child sexual abuse. There has been many ideas written about how this abuse can be predicted. Socioeconomic status, race, and gender are thought to be determining factors of such abuse. Others have made predictions of outcomes of the abused such as depression, self-esteem, and suicidal behavior. This paper will show that it is more than just race and social status that can determine whether or not certain children are at risk. It will also show that the outcomes for the victims are very similar.
Risk Factors
In the worRAB of Gerbner, Ross, and Zigler (1980) "Malnourishment, sexual abuse, failure to feed and clothe a child, beating a child, torturing a child, withholding medical care from a child, allowing a child to live in a "deprived or depraved" environment, and keeping a child out of school have all been defined at various times and in various laws as "child abuse"(p. 82). The definition of child abuse varies over time, across cultures, and between different social and cultural groups. Many of the books and articles that were researched for this paper had difficulty defining child abuse. Professional groups were given a list of items and were told to choose which ones they considered to be child abuse. The results were at varying degrees which shows that there is not a precise definition that society adheres to when classifying such abuse. As Starr has noted, "Two major characteristics seem to be common to conditions defined as abuse. First, there must be some clear, identifiable harm or injury to the child and second, there must be evidence of clear intent on the part of the parent to produce this injury or harm" (p. 11).
Socioeconomic Status and Race
Parton points out that "There is substantial evidence of a strong relationship between poverty and child abuse and neglect"(p. 153). It has been stated that even though the public is now more aware of cases of child abuse, the proportion of the cases are still from the lower classes. It has been reported that "the most severe injuries have occurred in the poorest families"(Parton, 1985, p. 153). This may be true except some other factors are contributed. First the public examines lower socioeconomic classes with more bias. Second lower classes are more familiar with social agencies that have had access to their houses. Third professional groups have a tendency to classify lower class children with the same symptoms as middle class children as abused while classifying the middle class symptoms as accidents. In the worRAB of the researchers, Daniel, Hampton, and Newberger (1983), "Discussions with physicians and empirical research suggest that social and economic characteristics of families play an important role in determining which children are labeled as "abused." So before physicians report child abuse they take into account the parents' socioeconomic status, ethnicity, and the severity of injury. Physicians recognized black children two times higher to be victims of child abuse when given a similar injury over white children. Lower-class white children suffering from major injuries were more likely to be classified as abused than were upper-class white children"(p. 646). Social Learning Theory
When looking at factors to determine who is at risk, one must consider the social learning model. This says that people are in large a product of their social environment. This model is put into perspective by Gerbner et al (1980), "If people are indeed a product of their social history, then prevention of many of the conditions with which our professional fielRAB have been concerned means changing the social conditions. But this idea threatens economic arrangements that are very profitable. Moreover, it threatens the psychiatric establishment because it suggests that even battered children may become parents who are loving and supportive if their social worlRAB are more supportive and lead to improvements in self-esteem and competence. It implies that abusive parenting is not caused by internal defect but rather by the lack of access to jobs, housing, and educational opportunities controlled by those who control the system" (p. 115). If we are a product of our society then there neeRAB to be a point where we break the cycle of the repeating action of child abuse so that future generations will not learn from our mistakes.
Outcomes of Victims
In every case of child sexual abuse there are unique characteristics. Some victims go on to fully come to terms with what happened to them and others may not be as fortunate. Some are haunted by nightmares, questions of "Why me?" and feelings of shame. There is however an unfortunate similarity of characteristics of those that have experienced child abuse. School performance, self-esteem, weight, depression, and suicidal behavior have been attributed to victims.
School Performance
"The physically abused children studied stood out as markedly problematic in school, at home, and in the community, displaying academic deficits, problem behaviors, lowered self-esteem, delinquency, elevated feelings of aggression, and pervasive adjustment difficulties in a variety of contexts" (Rothery and Cameron, 1990, p. 510). School performance is greatly affected by child abuse. Victims have poor attendance, low self-esteem that contributes to not achieving high, and peer adjustment that affects them while in school.
Self-esteem
Victims generally experience low self-esteem throughout their lives. There is emotional and physical abuse that stays with the victim after the abuse has ended. This would have traumatic affects on one's self-esteem. "Such abuse is extremely prevalent, and serious sexual abuse affects about 20% of female and about 10% of male children. Such abuse also has serious and permanent mental health sequelae in up to about 25% of the victims" (Rothery and Cameron, 1990, p. 184). Many children due to the stress of the situation, remaining silent, and keeping the act from their mother experience diminished self-esteem.
The groundwork for self-esteem is laid during our childhood years and blossoms into one's identity during adulthood. When that groundwork is disturbed during childhood it can have devastating effects into adulthood. "Although symptoms of depression and suicidal feelings and behavior may emerge during the abuse, or early adolescence when the abuse has stopped or been revealed, the profound impairment of self-esteem puts the woman at long-term risk for the development of depression and suicidal ideation" (Rothery and Cameron, 1990, p. 200-201).
Depression and Suicidal Behavior
"Given the finding that sexual abuse victims have, as adults, elevated profiles on measures of depression, impaired self-esteem, and suicidal ideation, it is not surprising that a nuraber of studies have found that former victims of child sexual abuse have higher rates of self-harm than those who have not been abused" (Rothery and Cameron, 1990, p. 189). When the self-esteem is low one might become depressed and have ideas of suicide. When one is a victim of child abuse there is more damaging effects that reduce the self-esteem. They feel guilt for what has happened, some want to make themselves less pretty, and for others self-harm is just a cry for help. A predictor for suicidal behavior is both physical and sexual abuse in childhood. Preventing child sexual abuse before it happens would be the best treatment. This doesn't happen that often so the next thing would be early intervention.
Weight
"When pertinent demographic variables were taken into account, few overall differences were found between abused, accident, and comparison children. Among the characteristics where no differences were detected were health, language development, intellectual status in school, self-concept, and behavior. The abused differed significantly from their peers only in weight (abused were heavier) and in a few measures of impulsivity and aggression" (Elmer, 1977, p. 278). The lack of taking care of the victim's body could refer back to the previous paragraph. The victim is trying to make oneself less attractive. If they are less sexually attractive then they may be less sexually assaulted. In there own way weight gain may be a cry for help also. There immediate family or even close non-family merabers may question the sudden weight gain. This may be their way of not remaining silent.
In conclusion, this paper has explored the facts that to determine who is at risk for child abuse, one must look beyond race, gender, and socioeconomic status. It has been found that physician's may be biased in their opinions of reporting cases of abuse. Since this has been proven true how do we know that child abuse doesn't occur in higher levels of social status? We don't know so it is wrong to assume that we can predict and prevent abuse based upon social class and race. "There are more than two million reported cases of child abuse each year and in a given year 1,300 children will die of abuse or neglect. Because of the private nature of this violence and the desire of family merabers to keep it hidden, all of these figures are almost certainly underestimates" (Newman, 1995, p. 246). This paper has come to the conclusion that child abuse, all kinRAB, are found in every class, race, and religion.
References
Daniel, J.H., Hampton, R.L., and Newberger, E.H. (1983, October).
Child Abuse and Accidents in Black Families: A Controlled Comparative Study. American Journal of Orthopsychiatry, 53(4), 645-653.
Elmer, E. (1977, February). A Follow-up Study of Traumatized Children. Pediatrics, 59(2), 273-279.
Gerbner, G., Ross, C. & Zigler, E. (1980). Child Abuse: An Agenda for Action. New York: Oxford University Press.
Newman, D.M. (1995). Sociology. California: Pine Forge Press.
Parton, N. (19850. The Politics of Child Abuse. New York: St. Martin's Press.
Rothery, M. & Cameron, G. (1990).
Child Maltreatment: Expanding Our Concept of Helping. New Jersey: Lawrence Erlbaum Associates, Inc.
Starr Jr., R.H. (1982). Child Abuse Prediction. Massachusetts: Ballinger Publishing Company.
Wodarski, J.S., Kurtz, P.D., Gaudin Jr., J.M., & Howing, P.T. (1990, Noveraber). Maltreatment and the School-
Age Child: Major Academic Socioemotional, and Adaptive Outcomes. Social Work, 35(6), 506-512.