In his writings on Early Christian Ethics, Thomas Aquinas proposed the existence of four distinct types of laws. These laws are eternal, natural, human, and divine. Aquinas defines eternal law as that which orders everything in the universe. It is a cosmos which issues from the will and wisdom of God. He defines natural law as a subset of eternal law. He states that the natural law is the location for the fundamental principles of morality, and we come to the natural law through conscience and reason. Essentially, Aquinas incorporates Aristotle's ideas of practical wisdom and reason, incorporates them into his natural law, and states that the natural law comes from God. This gives ethics a divine grounding. Aquinas explains human law as customary laws which vary from place to place based on customs or values. An example of this is the punishment for stealing which is different in some regions than others. According to Aquinas, divine law is that which we see not through reason, but through revelation. An example of divine law would be the existence of heaven and hell. Human's could not possibly reason the existence of heaven and hell, so they can only learn of it through God's revelations in the Bible.
Vernon Bourke analyzes Aquinas' moral psychology because he believes that it is an important basis for the Aquinas' entire philosophy and that it was an essential component of Aquinas' bringing Aristotelian ideas to the Christian world view. Bourke states that Aquinas' moral psychology can be broken down to three distinct human functions. The first function is intelligence. Bourke defines Aquinas' view of intellect as the ability to comprehend "universal meanings" of the experience, and the capacity to reason conclusions from this experience. This concept is very similar to Aristotle's concept of practical knowledge which comes from the use of reason. Volition is the second human function which Bourke analyzes. He states that the volition is complementary in to intellect. Intellect tells us what is right to do, but volition allows us to actually do what is right. Bourke states that the synthesis of intellect and volition is what composes Aquinas' principle of personal freedom. Bourke's third function is emotion. He states that Aquinas divides emotion into the desires for the sensory and reactions to threats and difficulties. Aquinas states that sometimes the sensory desires can become excessive, and that we should exercise moderation. This is similar to the Epicurean idea of a life of moderate pleasures.
Bourke also points out that Aquinas believed that each function of his moral psychology could be perfected through practice and making proper action into habit. Aquinas believed that by perfecting the volition, one would develop the habits of justice and charity. Aquinas viewed charity as one of the most important will-habits because charity meant loving other human beings in a manner similar to the way that God loves all human beings. Bourke's analysis of Aquinas' more psychology highlights the features that Aquinas incorporate from other philosophies, and it reveals the underlying features of Aquinas' writings.
Question 4
In the Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes develops the concept that our desire for self-preservation is such a powerful force that it will eventually lead to the formation of a social contract. Hobbes begins this thought experiment by stating that if we were to exist within a state of nature, without any rules or regulations, life would be "beastly, brutal and short," our only concern would be self-preservation (http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/CAAE/80130/part1/sect4/Hobbes.html). Even those who are strong in the state of nature would still have to be very concerned about self-preservation because there are no rules to protect them. Hobbes states that reason will tell us that we need to do something to insure our survival and that we should attempt to secure peace because that is in our self-interest. He believe that we will secure peace through a social contract in which each individual in the society transfers his/her collective strength to a sovereign authority which Hobbes calls the Leviathan. To Hobbes, the social contract with the Leviathan becomes the source of what is right or wrong.
Larry May offers a psychological and ethical analysis of Hobbes' social contract theory. He states that the state of nature scenario is built upon three major conditions. The first of these conditions is the equality of strength. This equality means that anyone has the capability to kill everyone else. This is important because it means that everyone has something to fear, and this fear drives us to act in our own self-interest by seeking peace.
The second condition is equality of prudence. This means that everyone in the scenario has the same ability to learn from their experience. May proposes that this learning from experience allows us to use reason to pursue our own self interest. He proposes that this first two conditions led to the third condition of equality of hope. The equality of strength and ability means that each person has an equal hope of surviving, and this equal hope leaRAB to a fierce competition for survival. May states that these three psychological condition motivate a person to act out of self-interest and compete violently, which in turn leaRAB to a state of war. In a state of war, each person competes against each other in order to survive.
Hobbes demonstrates that life in the state of nature would be terrible and brief. Therefore, individuals would work out of their own self-interest to seek peace. May states that this search for peace is motivated by man's desire to satisfy three passions. These passions are: the fear of death, desire of things needed for a comfortable living, and "hope by their industry to obtain them" (http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/CAAE/80130/part1/sect4/texts/May.html). In terms of natural right, May mentions that Hobbes believed that natural law and natural rights were dictated by the Leviathan because in the state of nature, there are no rights, and once the social contract is formed, natural law and natural right is defined by the Leviathan. However, self-interest is an important part of the development of natural right because self-interest motivates the escape from nature and the formation of the social contract.
Vernon Bourke analyzes Aquinas' moral psychology because he believes that it is an important basis for the Aquinas' entire philosophy and that it was an essential component of Aquinas' bringing Aristotelian ideas to the Christian world view. Bourke states that Aquinas' moral psychology can be broken down to three distinct human functions. The first function is intelligence. Bourke defines Aquinas' view of intellect as the ability to comprehend "universal meanings" of the experience, and the capacity to reason conclusions from this experience. This concept is very similar to Aristotle's concept of practical knowledge which comes from the use of reason. Volition is the second human function which Bourke analyzes. He states that the volition is complementary in to intellect. Intellect tells us what is right to do, but volition allows us to actually do what is right. Bourke states that the synthesis of intellect and volition is what composes Aquinas' principle of personal freedom. Bourke's third function is emotion. He states that Aquinas divides emotion into the desires for the sensory and reactions to threats and difficulties. Aquinas states that sometimes the sensory desires can become excessive, and that we should exercise moderation. This is similar to the Epicurean idea of a life of moderate pleasures.
Bourke also points out that Aquinas believed that each function of his moral psychology could be perfected through practice and making proper action into habit. Aquinas believed that by perfecting the volition, one would develop the habits of justice and charity. Aquinas viewed charity as one of the most important will-habits because charity meant loving other human beings in a manner similar to the way that God loves all human beings. Bourke's analysis of Aquinas' more psychology highlights the features that Aquinas incorporate from other philosophies, and it reveals the underlying features of Aquinas' writings.
Question 4
In the Leviathan, Thomas Hobbes develops the concept that our desire for self-preservation is such a powerful force that it will eventually lead to the formation of a social contract. Hobbes begins this thought experiment by stating that if we were to exist within a state of nature, without any rules or regulations, life would be "beastly, brutal and short," our only concern would be self-preservation (http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/CAAE/80130/part1/sect4/Hobbes.html). Even those who are strong in the state of nature would still have to be very concerned about self-preservation because there are no rules to protect them. Hobbes states that reason will tell us that we need to do something to insure our survival and that we should attempt to secure peace because that is in our self-interest. He believe that we will secure peace through a social contract in which each individual in the society transfers his/her collective strength to a sovereign authority which Hobbes calls the Leviathan. To Hobbes, the social contract with the Leviathan becomes the source of what is right or wrong.
Larry May offers a psychological and ethical analysis of Hobbes' social contract theory. He states that the state of nature scenario is built upon three major conditions. The first of these conditions is the equality of strength. This equality means that anyone has the capability to kill everyone else. This is important because it means that everyone has something to fear, and this fear drives us to act in our own self-interest by seeking peace.
The second condition is equality of prudence. This means that everyone in the scenario has the same ability to learn from their experience. May proposes that this learning from experience allows us to use reason to pursue our own self interest. He proposes that this first two conditions led to the third condition of equality of hope. The equality of strength and ability means that each person has an equal hope of surviving, and this equal hope leaRAB to a fierce competition for survival. May states that these three psychological condition motivate a person to act out of self-interest and compete violently, which in turn leaRAB to a state of war. In a state of war, each person competes against each other in order to survive.
Hobbes demonstrates that life in the state of nature would be terrible and brief. Therefore, individuals would work out of their own self-interest to seek peace. May states that this search for peace is motivated by man's desire to satisfy three passions. These passions are: the fear of death, desire of things needed for a comfortable living, and "hope by their industry to obtain them" (http://caae.phil.cmu.edu/CAAE/80130/part1/sect4/texts/May.html). In terms of natural right, May mentions that Hobbes believed that natural law and natural rights were dictated by the Leviathan because in the state of nature, there are no rights, and once the social contract is formed, natural law and natural right is defined by the Leviathan. However, self-interest is an important part of the development of natural right because self-interest motivates the escape from nature and the formation of the social contract.